Achaemenid Empire
(/əˈkiːmənɪd/; Old Persian: Pārsa;[9][10]New Persian: شاهنشاهی هخامنشی c. 550–330 BC), or First Persian Empire,[11] was an empire in Western and Central Asia, founded in the 6th century BC by Cyrus the Great.[11] The dynasty draws its name from king Achaemenes, who ruled Persis between 705 BC and 675 BC. The empire expanded to eventually rule over significant portions of the ancient world, which at around 500 BC stretched from theIndus Valley in the east to Thrace and Macedon on the northeastern border of Greece. The Achaemenid Empire would eventually control Egypt as well. It was ruled by a series of monarchs who unified its disparate tribes and nationalities by constructing a complex network of roads.
By the 600s BC, the Persians (Parsa)[12] had settled in the southwest Iranian plateau, bounded on the west by the Tigris River and on the south by the Persian Gulf; this region came to be their heartland.[13] It was from this region thatCyrus the Great would advance to defeat the Kingdom of Media, the Kingdom of Lydia, and the Babylonian Empire, to form the Achaemenid Empire.
At the height of its power after the conquest of Egypt, the empire encompassed approximately 8 million square kilometers[14] spanning three continents: Asia, Africa and Europe. At its greatest extent, the empire included the modern territories of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Syria, Jordan, Israel, Palestine, Lebanon, all significant population centers of ancient Egypt as far west as Libya, Turkey, Thrace and Macedonia, much of the Black Sea coastal regions, Armenia, Georgia,Azerbaijan, much of Central Asia, Afghanistan, northern Saudi Arabia, Pakistan, and parts of Oman and the UAE.[6][7] It is noted in Western history as the antagonist foe of the Greek city states[13] during the Greco-Persian Wars, for emancipation of slaves including the Jewish people from their Babylonian captivity, and for instituting infrastructures such as a postal system, road systems, and the usage of an official language, Aramaic, throughout its territories. The empire had a centralised, bureaucratic administration under the King and a large professional army and civil services, inspiring similar developments in later empires.[15] The delegation of power to local governments eventually weakened the king’s central authority, causing resources to be expended in attempts to subdue local rebellions.[13] This accounts for the dis-unification of the region by the time Alexander the Great invaded Persia in 334 BC.
This viewpoint however is challenged by some modern scholars who argue that the Achaemenid Empire was not facing any such crisis around the time of Alexander, and that only internal succession struggles within the Achaemenid family ever came close to weakening the empire.[13] Alexander, an avid admirer of Cyrus the Great,[16] would eventually cause the collapse of the empire and its disintegration around 330 BC into what later became the Ptolemaic Kingdom andSeleucid Empire, in addition to other minor territories which gained independence at that time. The Persian culture of the central plateau, however, continued to thrive and eventually reclaimed power by the 2nd century BC.[13]
The historical mark of the Achaemenid Empire went far beyond its territorial and military influences and included cultural, social, technological and religious influences as well. Many Athenians adopted Achaemenid customs in their daily lives in a reciprocal cultural exchange,[17] some being employed by, or allied to the Persian kings. The impact of Cyrus the Great’s Edict of Restoration is mentioned in Judeo-Christian texts and the empire was instrumental in the spread ofZoroastrianism as far east as China. Even Alexander the Great, the man who would set out to conquer this vast empire, would respect its customs, by enforcing respect for the royal Persian kings including Cyrus the Great, and even by appearing in proskynesis, a Persian royal custom, despite stern Macedonian disapproval.[18][19] The Persian Empire would also set the tone for the politics, heritage and history of modern Persia (now called Iran).[20]
In 480 BC, it is estimated that 50 million[4] people lived in the Achaemenid Empire
The Origin
The Persian nation contains a number of tribes as listed here. … : the Pasargadae, Maraphii, and Maspii, upon which all the other tribes are dependent. Of these, the Pasargadae are the most distinguished; they contain the clan of the Achaemenids from which spring the Perseid kings. Other tribes are the Panthialaei, Derusiaei, Germanii, all of which are attached to the soil, the remainder -the Dai, Mardi, Dropici, Sagarti, being nomadic.
—Herodotus, Histories 1.101 & 125
The Persian Empire is named after a West Iranian tribe called Parsua. The name Persia is a Greek and Latin pronunciation of the name Parsua, and Persis (or in Persian, Pars) was their territory, an area located north of the Persian Gulf and East of Tigris river.[22]
Despite its success and rapid expansion, the Achaemenid Empire was not the first Iranian empire, as by 6th century BC another group of ancient Iranian people had already established the Median Empire.[22]The Medes had originally been the dominant Iranian group in the region, rising to power at the end of the 7th century BC and incorporating the Persians into their empire. The Iranian peoples had arrived in the region circa 1000 BC[23] and had initially fallen under the domination of the Assyrian Empire (911-609 BC). However, the Medes and Persians, (together with the Scythians and Babylonia) played a major role in the destruction of an Assyria riven by internal strife.
The term Achaemenid is in fact the Latinized version of the Old Persian name Haxāmaniš (a bahuvrihi compound translating to “having a friend’s mind”[24]), meaning in Greek “of the family of the Achaemenis.” Despite the derivation of the name, Achaemenes was himself a minor 7th-century ruler of the Anshan (Ansham or Anšān) located in southwestern Iran.[22] It was not until the time of Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) a descendant of Achaemenes, that the Achaemenid Empire developed the prestige of an empire, and set out to incorporate the existing empires of the ancient east, to become the vast Persian Empire of which the ancient texts speak.
At some point in 550 BC, Cyrus the Great rose in rebellion against the Median Empire (most likely due to the Medes’ mismanagement of Persis), eventually conquering the Medes and creating the first Persian empire. Cyrus the Great would utilize his tactical genius,[25] as well as his understanding of the socio-political conditions governing his territories, to eventually incorporate into the Persian Empire the neighbouring Lydian and Neo-Babylonian empires, and also leading the way for his successor, Cambyses II to venture into Egypt and defeat the Egyptian Kingdom.
Cyrus the Great would reflect his political acumen in the management of his newly formed empire, as the Persian Empire became the first to attempt to govern many different ethnic groups, on the principle of equal responsibilities, and rights for all people, so long as subjects paid their taxes and kept the peace.[26] Additionally, the king would agree not to interfere with the local customs, religions, and trades of its subject states,[26] a unique quality that eventually won Cyrus the support of the Babylonians. This system of management would ultimately become an issue for the Persians, as with a larger empire came the need for order and control, leading to expenditure of resources and mobilization of troops, to quell local rebellions, weakening the central power of the king. By the time of Darius III, this disorganization had almost led to a disunified realm.[13]
The Persians from whom Cyrus hailed were originally nomadic pastoral people in the western Iranian plateau and by 850 BC were calling themselves the Parsa and their constantly shifting territory Parsua for the most part localized around Persis(Pars).[13] As Persians gained power, they developed the infrastructure to support their growing influence including creation of a capital named Pasargadae, and an opulent city named Persepolis.
Begun during the rule of Darius the Great (Darius I), and completed some 100 years later,[27] Persepolis was a symbol of the empire serving both as a ceremonial centre and a center for government.[27] It had a special set of gradually progressive stairways named “All Countries”[27] around which carved relief decoration depicted scenes of heroism, hunting, natural themes, and presentation of the gifts to the Achaemenid kings by their subjects during the spring festival, Nowruz. The core structure was composed of a multitude of square rooms or halls, the biggest of which was called Apadana.[27] Tall, erect, decorated columns would often welcome visitors as well as impress them as to the size of the structure. Later on, Darius the Great (Darius I), would also utilize Susa and Ecbatana as his governmental centres, developing them into a similar metropolis status.
Account of the ancestral lineage of the Persian kings of the Achaemenid dynasty can be derived from either documented Greek or Roman accounts, or from existing documented Persian accounts, such as those found in the Behistun Inscription. However, since most existing accounts of this vast empire are in works of Greek philosophers and historians, and since much of the original Persian documents are lost, not to mention varying scholarly views on their origin and possible motivations behind them, it is difficult to create a definitive and completely objective list. Nonetheless, it is clear that Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia), and Darius the Great (Darius I of Persia), were critical in expansion of the empire. Cyrus the Great is often believed to be the son of Cambyses I, grandson of Cyrus I, the father of Cambyses II, and a relative of Darius the Great, through a shared ancestor, Teispes. Cyrus the Great is also believed to have been a family member (possibly grandson) of the Median king Astyages through his mother, Mandana of Media. A minority of scholars argue that perhaps Achaemenes was a retrograde creation of Darius the Great, in order to reconcile his connection with Cyrus the Great, after gaining power.[22]
Ancient Greek writers provide some legendary information about Achaemenes by calling his tribe the Pasargadae, and stating that he was “raised by an eagle“. Plato, when writing about the Persians, identified Achaemenes with Perses, ancestor of the Persians in Greek mythology.[28] According to Plato, Achaemenes was the same person as Perses, a son of the Ethiopian queen Andromeda and the Greek hero Perseus, and a grandson of Zeus. Later writers believed that Achaemenes and Perses were different people, and that Perses was an ancestor of the king.[29] This account further confirms that Achaemenes could well have been a significiant Anshan leader and an ancestor of Cyrus the Great. Regardless, both Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great were related, prominent kings of Persia, under whose rule the empire expanded to include much of the ancient world.
Formation and expansion[edit]
The tomb of Cyrus the Great, founder of the Achaemenid Empire of Iran.
Cyrus the Great king of Iran (ancient Persia) liberated the Hebrews captives in Babylon to resettle and rebuild Jerusalem, earning him an honored place in Judaism.
Further information: Battle of the Persian Border, Persian Revolt, Battle of Pteria, Battle of Opis, and Battle of Pelusium (525 BC)
The empire took its unified form with a central administration around Pasargadae erected by Cyrus the Great. The empire ended up conquering and enlarging the Median Empire to include in addition Egypt and Asia Minor. During the reigns ofDarius I and his son Xerxes I it engaged in military conflict with some of the major city-states of Ancient Greece, and although it came close to defeating the Greek army this war ultimately led to the empire’s overthrow.[30]
In 559 BC, Cambyses I the Elder was succeeded as the king of Anšān by his son Cyrus II the Great, who also succeeded the still-living Arsames as the King of Persia, thus reuniting the two realms. Cyrus is considered to be the first true king of the Persian Empire, as his predecessors were subservient to the Medes. Cyrus the Great conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylon. Cyrus was politically shrewd, modeling himself as the “savior” of conquered nations, often allowing displaced people to return, and giving his subjects freedom to practice local customs. To reinforce this image, he instituted policies of religious freedom, and restored temples and other infrastructure in the newly acquired cities (Most notably the Jewish inhabitants of Babylon, as recorded in the Cyrus Cylinder and the Tanakh). As a result of his tolerant policies he came to be known by those of the Jewish faith, as “the anointed of the Lord.”[31][32]
His immediate successors were less successful. Cyrus’ son Cambyses II conquered Egypt in 525 BC, but died in July 522 BC during a revolt led by a sacerdotal clan that had lost its power following Cyrus’ conquest of Media. The cause of his death remains uncertain, although it may have been the result of an accident.[33]
According to Herodotus, Cambyses II had originally ventured into Egypt to take revenge for the pharaoh Amasis’s trickery when he sent a fake Egyptian bride whose family Amasis had murdered,[34] instead of his own daughter, to wed Cambyses II. Additionally negative reports of mistreatment caused by Amasis, given by Phanes of Halicarnassus, a wise council man serving Amasis, further enforced Cambyses’s resolve to venture into Egypt. Amasis died before Cambyses II could face him, but his successor Psamtik III was defeated by Cambyses II in the Battle of Pelusium.
While Cambyses II was in Egypt, the Zoroastrian priests, whom Herodotus called Magi, usurped the throne for one of their own, Gaumata, who then pretended to be Cambyses II’s younger brother Bardiya (Greek: Smerdis orTanaoxares/Tanyoxarkes[33]), who had been assassinated some three years earlier. Owing to the strict rule of Cambyses II, especially his stance on taxation,[35] and his long absence in Egypt, “the whole people, Perses, Medes and all the other nations,” acknowledged the usurper, especially as he granted a remission of taxes for three years (Herodotus iii. 68). Cambyses II himself would not be able to quell the imposters, as he died on the way back from Egypt.
The claim that Gaumata had impersonated Bardiya (Smerdis), is derived from Darius the Great and the records at the Behistun Inscription. Historians are divided over the possibility that the story of the impostor was invented by Darius as justification for his coup.[36] Darius made a similar claim when he later captured Babylon, announcing that the Babylonian king was not, in fact, Nebuchadnezzar III, but an impostor named Nidintu-bel.[37]
According to the Behistun Inscription, Gaumata ruled for seven months before being overthrown in 522 BC by Darius the Great (Darius I) (Old Persian Dāryavuš “Who Holds Firm the Good”, also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). The Magi, though persecuted, continued to exist, and a year following the death of the first pseudo-Smerdis (Gaumata), saw a second pseudo-Smerdis (named Vahyazdāta) attempt a coup. The coup, though initially successful, failed.[38]
Herodotus writes[39] that the native leadership debated the best form of government for the empire. It was agreed that an oligarchy would divide them against one another, and democracy would bring about mob rule resulting in a charismatic leader resuming the monarchy. Therefore, they decided a new monarch was in order, particularly since they were in a position to choose him. Darius I was chosen monarch from among the leaders. He was cousin to Cambyses II and Bardiya (Smerdis), claiming Ariaramnes as his ancestor.
The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic world view, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and, in less than thirty years, raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. It was during the reign of Darius the Great (Darius I) that Persepolis was built (518–516 BC) and which would serve as capital for several generations of Achaemenid kings. Ecbatana (Hagmatāna “City of Gatherings”, modern: Hamadan) in Media was greatly expanded during this period and served as the summer capital.
Darius the Great (Darius I) eventually attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis; but as a result of his defeat at the Battle of Marathon, he was forced to pull the limits of his empire back to Asia Minor. Some scholars argue that in the context of history of the Near and Middle east in the first millennium, Alexander can be considered as the “last of the Achaemenids.”[40] This is partly because Alexander maintained more or less the same political structure, and borders as the previous Achaemenid kings.
Achaemenid Empire around the time of Darius the Great and Xerxes.
By the 5th century BC the Kings of Persia were either ruling over or had subordinated territories encompassing not just all of the Persian Plateau and all of the territories formerly held by the Assyrian Empire (Mesopotamia, the Levant, Cyprus andEgypt), but beyond this all of Anatolia and the Armenian Plateau as well as much of the Southern Caucasus, Macedonia and parts of Greece and Thrace to the north and west, parts of Central Asia as far as the Aral Sea, the Oxus and Jaxartes to the north and north-east, the Hindu Kush and the western Indus basin (corresponding to modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) to the east, parts of northern Arabia to the south and parts of northern Libya to the south-west.[41][42]
History of Afghanistan 